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Here is a term paper on ‘Biodiversity and Climate Change’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short term papers on ‘Biodiversity and Climate Change’ especially written for school and college students.
Term Paper # 1. Introduction to the Biodiversity of India:
India’s 3,166,414 sq. km area shows a notable diversity of habitats due to significant variations in rainfall/altitude/topography and latitude that cause major seasonal changes in vegetation. They include wide range of eco-zones like desert/high mountains/highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands/riverine areas, as well as, island archipelago.
It hosts four biodiversity hotspots: the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the hilly ranges that straddle the India-Myanmar border and the Nicobar group of islands. These hotspots have numerous endemic species. Because of its size and range of latitude, topography and climate, India is home to a great diversity of eco-regions, ranging from permanent ice and snow covered Himalayas to tropical rainforests.
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India is endowed with an immense variety of natural resources in its rich animal (91,200 species) and plant heritage (44.447 species), besides over 250 breeds of farm animals. According to world biogeographic classification, India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes (Tropical Humid Forests, Tropical Dry/Deciduous Forests and Warm Deserts/Semi-Deserts).
These include 12 biogeographic regions. However, the Wildlife Institute of India has proposed a modified classification-which divides the country into 10 biogeographic regions and 20 biogeographic zones. The rich vegetation wealth and diversity in the country is enormous due to the variety of climatic and altitudinal variations coupled with diverse ecological habitats.
Champion and Seth (1968) recognized 16 major forest types comprising 221 minor types, of these, tropical moist deciduous forms the major percentage (37 per cent), followed by tropical dry deciduous (28.6 per cent), tropical wet evergreen (8 per cent), tropical thorn forest (2.6 per cent) and others are of minor values.
Recent Forest Cover Assessment by Forest Survey of India (2009) indicates forest and tree cover of the country is 78.37 million hectares (mha) amounting to a dense forest cover of 8.35 mha (2.54 per cent of geographic area), medium dense forest cover of 31.90 mha (9.71 per cent) and open forest of 28.84 mha (8.77 per cent), thus totaling 21.02 per cent; while the non-forest cover constitute a major portion (77.72 per cent) with scrub forest depicting only 1.26 per cent of the total area.
Forests are an important reservoir of biodiversity. Ancient and frontier forests, because of their long standing and relatively lower levels of human disturbance, are typically richer in biodiversity than other natural or semi-natural forests. Loss of forest will inevitably result in reduction of biodiversity as a direct result of loss of habitat. There are many anthropocentric reasons to preserve biodiversity (direct use value, option value, etc.) but the principal such reason considered here is the indirect use value in the form of ecosystem services.
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A loss in biodiversity affects the stability of an ecosystem resulting in a reduction of its resistance to disruption of the food web (by loss of the weak interaction effect), resistance to species invasion and resilience to global environmental change.
Ecosystem diversity supplies important ecosystem services, viz., carbon sequestration, plant pollination, pest control by natural predators, watershed protection and erosion control, maintenance of soil fertility and pasture regeneration and breakdown of waste and pollutants, etc. Additionally, ecosystem diversity can contribute to development by encouraging nature-based tourism. Thus, ecosystem services improve local well-being by providing clean water and productive agricultural systems.
India is a large developing country with nearly 700 million rural population directly depending on climate-sensitive sectors (agriculture, forests and fisheries) and natural resources (such as water, biodiversity, mangroves, coastal zones, grasslands) for their subsistence and livelihoods. Further, the adaptive capacity of dry land farmers, forest dwellers, fisher-folk and nomadic shepherds is very low.
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Climate change is likely to impact all the natural ecosystems as well as socio-economic systems as shown by the National Communications Report of India to the UNFCCC (2004).
The latest high resolution climate change scenarios and projections for India, based on Regional Climate Modeling (RCM) system, known as PRECIS developed by Hadley Center and applied for India using IPCC scenarios A2 and B212 shows the following:
i. An annual mean surface temperature rise by the end of century, ranging from 3-5°C, with warming more pronounced in the northern parts of India.
ii. A 20 per cent rise in all India summer monsoon rainfall and further rise in rainfall is projected over all states except Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, which show a slight decrease.
iii. Extremes in maximum and minimum temperatures are also expected to increase.
iv. Similarly extreme precipitation also shows substantial increases, particularly over the west coast of India and west central India.
Expected impacts due to climate change in India projected by India’s Initial National Communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is as below.
Term Paper # 2. Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources:
The hydrological cycle is likely to be altered and the severity of droughts and intensity of floods in various parts of India is likely to increase. Further, a general reduction in the quantity of available run-off is predicted. Water yield (which is a function of precipitation, total surface run-off, evapo-transpiration and soil properties), is projected to increase in the Himalayan region in 2030s by 5-20 per cent.
However, water yields are likely to be variable across the northeastern region, Western Ghats and coastal region. In some places of these regions, water yield is projected to increase and in some places it is projected to decrease. Moderate to extreme drought severity is projected in 2030s for the Himalayan region, as compared to the other regions. All the regions are likely to experience flooding which are exceeding existing magnitudes by 10 per cent to 30 per cent.
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i. Agriculture:
Simulations using dynamic crop models indicate a decrease in yield of crops as temperature increases in different parts of India. However, this is offset by an increase in CO2 at moderate rise in temperature and at higher warming; negative impact on crop productivity is projected due to reduced crop durations. According to the latest report, irrigated rice in all the regions are likely to gain in yields marginally due to warming as compared to the rain fed crop as the irrigated rice tends to benefit from ‘CO2 fertilization effect’.
Maize and sorghum are projected to have reduced yields in all the regions. The coconut productivity is projected to rise in the western coast and reduce in the eastern coastal region. Observations indicate a reduction in apple production in the Himalayan region, which is likely to continue in the future.
ii. Forests:
Climate impact assessments using BIOME-3 model and climate projections for the year 2085 show 77 per cent and 68 per cent of the forested grids in India are likely to experience shift in forest types. Indications show a shift towards wetter forest types in the northeastern region and drier forest types in the northwestern region in the absence of human influence.
Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration and climate warming could also result in a doubling of net primary productivity under the A2 scenario and nearly 70 per cent increase. Change is projected for 8 per cent, 18 per cent, 56 per cent and 30 per cent of the vegetation grids an increase in net primary productivity by 23 per cent, 20 per cent, 57 per cent and 31 per cent is projected in Western Ghats, northeastern region, Himalayan region and the coastal region respectively.
iii. Coastal Zone:
Simulation models show an increase in frequencies of tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal; particularly intense events are projected during the post-monsoon period. Sea level rise is projected to displace populations in coastal zones, increase flooding in low-lying coastal areas, loss of crop yields from inundation and salinization.
iv. Human Health:
Malaria and dengue incidents are likely to persist in many states and new regions may become malaria-prone and the duration of the malaria transmission window, is likely to widen in northern and western states and shorten in southern states. Malaria is projected to spread in new areas in Jammu and Kashmir in the Himalayan region. In the northeastern region opportunities for transmission is likely to increase for a longer period.
In the Western Ghats, no change is observed between in 2030s and the trends observed in 1970s. However, in the coastal region, especially in the eastern coast, a marked decrease in number of months is projected in which that the malaria transmission window would be open.
v. Desertification:
Globally, about 1900 million hectares of land are affected by land degradation, of which 500 million hectares each are in Africa and the Asia-Pacific and 300 million hectares in Latin America. Climate change leading to warming and water stress could further exacerbate land degradation, leading to desertification.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) aims to address the problem of land degradation, which is linked to climate change. It is important to note that the climate-sensitive sectors (forests, agriculture, coastal zones) and the natural resources (groundwater, soil, biodiversity, etc.) are already under stress due to socio-economic pressures.
Climate change is likely to exacerbate the degradation of resources and socio-economic pressures. Thus, countries such as India with a large population dependent on climate-sensitive sectors and low adaptive capacity have to develop and implement adaptation strategies.
Term Paper # 3. India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC):
On June 30, 2008, Prime Minister released India’s first National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) outlining existing and future policies and programmes addressing climate mitigation and adaptation. The plan identifies eight core “national missions” emphasizing the overriding priority of maintaining high economic growth rates to raise living standards.
The plan “identifies measures that promote our development objectives while also yielding co-benefits for addressing climate change effectively.” It says these national measures would be more successful with assistance from developed countries and pledges that India’s per capita greenhouse gas emissions “will at no point exceed that of developed countries even as we pursue our development objectives.”
i. National Solar Mission:
The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of solar energy for power generation and other uses with the ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options.
ii. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency:
Current initiatives are expected to yield savings of 10,000 MW by 2012. The plan includes specific goals for increasing use of solar thermal technologies in urban areas, industry and commercial establishments; a goal of increasing production of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year; and a goal of deploying at least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.
iii. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat:
To promote energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning, the plan calls for: Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code; a greater emphasis on urban waste management and recycling, including power production from waste; strengthening the enforcement of fuel economy standards in the automobiles and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles; and incentives for the use of public transportation.
iv. National Water Mission:
With water scarcity projected to worsen as a result of climate change, the plan sets a goal of a 20 per cent improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures.
v. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem:
The plan aims to conserve biodiversity, forest cover and other ecological values in the Himalayan region, where glaciers that are a major source of India’s water supply are projected to recede as a result of global warming.
vi. National Mission for a “Green India”:
Goals include the afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forestlands and expanding forest cover from 23 per cent to 33 per cent of India’s territory.
vii. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture:
The plan aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms and agricultural practices.
viii. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change:
To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital funds.
This is reflected in the document prepared by CBD (22nd May. 2008) that Biodiversity related impacts by anthropogenic climate changes are:
1. Species’ geographic ranges are shifting towards higher latitudes and elevations.
2. Changes in timing of life cycles (phenology) of natural events such as flowering, reproduction and leaf unfolding, which has the bearing on the life cycle of many animals dependent on such changes.
3. Interactions between species vary resulting in mismatches between the peak of resource demands by reproducing animals and the peak of resource availability. This is causing population declines in many species and may indicate limits to natural adaptation.
4. Changes in photosynthetic rates, carbon uptake and productivity in response to CO2 “fertilization” and nitrogen deposition, thus affecting gross primary production.
5. Structural and functional changes in ecosystems are resulting in substantial changes in species abundance and composition. These have impacts on livelihood and traditional knowledge including, for example, changing the timing of hunting and fishing and traditional sustainable use activities, as well as impacting upon traditional migration routes for people.
6. Climate change will interact with other pressures acting on natural systems, most notably land use and land use change, invasive alien species and disturbance by fire.
7. Changes and shifts in the distribution of marine biodiversity resulting from climate change could have serious implications for fisheries, affecting the socio-economic fabric of society.
Term Paper # 4. Remarks on the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity:
There is currently considerable evidence to suggest that climate change has already affected the abundance, distributions and population dynamics of a wide range of animal and plant species. The prime priority should be oriented towards understanding the impact of climate change on the population dynamics.
Breeding biology of several migratory species, especially birds, will offer many clues of long and short-term monitoring of species. Warmer temperatures may result in altitudinal extension of grass and heather moorland at the expense of the lichen-dominated montane habitat on which many bird species breed. This is evident from the studies on relationships between survival rates, breeding success, abundance, distribution, food availability, phenology of bird species and a range of climatic variables.
Climate change may lead to shifts in the rate of reproduction of pathogens or in the distribution of vectors carrying these pathogens. In fact, the warm winters and spring droughts may have contributed to the spread of West Nile virus through avian populations in Europe and North America and that the incidence and distribution of this pathogen was likely to increase if predicted long-term trends towards a general amelioration of the climate in these areas are accurate.
Besides above, impact of climate especially the temperature variation on sex determination in selected species, hatching behaviour of marine turtles, thermo regulation in cold blooded animals, altitudinal migration of selected species, rate of extinctions in amphibians due to an emerging disease called chytridiomycosis and global climate change are thought to be the biggest threats to amphibians.